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1 indígenas
m.&f. pl.native people, aboriginal people.* * *(n.) = indigenous peopleEx. If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.* * *(n.) = indigenous peopleEx: If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.
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2 colonizadores
(n.) = colonising peopleEx. If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.* * *(n.) = colonising peopleEx: If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.
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3 población indígena
f.indigenous population.* * *(n.) = indigenous peopleEx. If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.* * *(n.) = indigenous peopleEx: If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.
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4 enfrentamiento armado
(n.) = armed encounterEx. If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.* * *(n.) = armed encounterEx: If the word battle does not appropriately describe an armed encounter between an indigenous and a colonizing people, the neutral word incident should be used.
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5 neutralizar
v.1 to neutralize.Su fuerza neutraliza su actitud His strength neutralizes his attitude.La pandilla neutralizó a Ricardo The gang neutralized=eliminated Richard.2 to passivate, to make unreactive.El ácido neutraliza el acero Acid passivates steel.3 to buffer.* * *1 to neutralize* * *1.VT [gen] to neutralize; [+ tendencia, influencia] to counteract2.See:* * *verbo transitivo to neutralize* * *= neutralise [neutralize, -USA], dope, counteract, balance out.Ex. These subdivisions could be neutralized by changing 'Civilization of' to 'Relations with (colonizing people)' and by changing 'Discovery and exploration' to 'First knowledge of in (Western Europe)'.Ex. A photolithographic process selectively dopes minute areas of the silicon and so builds up circuits.Ex. Closed system tendencies, such as invoking system controls designed to counteract differences and correct deviations (thus scoring creativity as error), only push the institution more rapidly toward extinction.Ex. If you do this it should balance out some of the negative thoughts you're having and know that in the end que sera sera, what's meant to be will be.----* neutralizar la acidez = deacidify [de-acidify].* * *verbo transitivo to neutralize* * *= neutralise [neutralize, -USA], dope, counteract, balance out.Ex: These subdivisions could be neutralized by changing 'Civilization of' to 'Relations with (colonizing people)' and by changing 'Discovery and exploration' to 'First knowledge of in (Western Europe)'.
Ex: A photolithographic process selectively dopes minute areas of the silicon and so builds up circuits.Ex: Closed system tendencies, such as invoking system controls designed to counteract differences and correct deviations (thus scoring creativity as error), only push the institution more rapidly toward extinction.Ex: If you do this it should balance out some of the negative thoughts you're having and know that in the end que sera sera, what's meant to be will be.* neutralizar la acidez = deacidify [de-acidify].* * *neutralizar [A4 ]vtto neutralize* * *
neutralizar ( conjugate neutralizar) verbo transitivo
to neutralize
neutralizar verbo transitivo to neutralize: debemos hacer una campaña para neutralizar su influencia, we should carry out a campaign to neutralize his influence
' neutralizar' also found in these entries:
English:
neutralize
* * *♦ vt1. [efecto] to neutralize* * *v/t neutralize* * *neutralizar {21} vt: to neutralize♦ neutralización nf -
6 Luso-Tropicalism
An anthropological and sociol ogical theory or complex of ideas allegedly showing a process of civilization relating to the significance of Portuguese activity in the tropics of Africa, Asia, and the Americas since 1415. As a theory and method of social science analysis, Luso-Tropicalism is a 20th-century phenomenon that has both academic and political (foreign and colonial policy) relevance. While the theory was based in part on French concepts of the "science of tropicology" in anthropology, it was Gilberto Freyre, an eminent Brazilian sociologist-anthropologist, who developed Luso-Tropicalism as an academic theory of the unique qualities of the Portuguese style of imperial activity in the tropics. In lectures, articles, and books during the period 1930-60, Freyre coined the term Luso-Tropicalism to describe Portuguese civilization in the tropics and to claim that the Portuguese, more than any other European colonizing people, successfully adapted their civilization to the tropics.From 1960 on, the academic theory was co-opted to lend credence to Portugal's colonial policy and determination to continue colonial rule in her large, remaining African empire. Freyre's Luso-Tropicalism theme was featured in the elaborate Fifth Centenary of the Death of Prince Henry the Navigator celebrations held in Lisbon in 1960 and in a massive series of publications produced in the 1960s to defend Portugal's policies in its empire, the first to be established and the last to decolonize in the Third World. Freyre's academic theory and his international prestige as a scholar who had put the sociology of Brazil on the world map were eagerly adopted and adapted by the Estado Novo. A major thesis of this interesting but somewhat disorganized mass of material was that the Portuguese were less racist and prejudiced toward the tropical peoples they encountered than were other Europeans.As African wars of insurgency began in Portugal's empire during 1961-64, and as the United Nations put pressures on Portugal, Luso-Tropicalism was tested and contested not only in academia and the press, but in international politics and diplomacy. Following the decolonization of Portugal's empire during 1974 and 1975 (although Macau remained the last colony to the late 1990s), debate over the notion of Luso-Tropicalism died down. With the onset of the 500-year anniversary celebrations of the Portuguese Age of Discoveries and Exploration, beginning in 1988, however, a whiff of the essence of Luso- Tropicalism reappeared in selected aspects of the commemorative literature. -
7 colonizador
adj.colonizing, colonising.m.colonizer, frontiersman, colonist, early settler.* * *► adjetivo1 colonizing► nombre masculino,nombre femenino1 colonizer, colonist* * *(f. - colonizadora)nouncolonizer, settler* * *colonizador, -a1.ADJ [proceso, país, lengua] colonizing2.SM / F [de país, territorio] colonist, colonizer* * *I- dora adjetivo colonizingII- dora masculino, femenino colonizer* * *= colonist.Ex. Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.----* colonizadores = colonising people.* * *I- dora adjetivo colonizingII- dora masculino, femenino colonizer* * *= colonist.Ex: Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.
* colonizadores = colonising people.* * *colonizingmasculine, femininecolonizer* * *
colonizador◊ - dora sustantivo masculino, femenino
colonizer
colonizador,-ora
I adjetivo colonizing
II sustantivo masculino y femenino colonist, settler
' colonizador' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
colonizadora
* * *colonizador, -ora♦ adjcolonizing♦ nm,fcolonizer, colonist* * *m, colonizadora f colonizer* * *colonizador, - dora adj: colonizingcolonizador, - dora n: colonizer, colonist -
8 masacre
f.massacre.pres.subj.1st person singular (yo) Present Subjunctive of Spanish verb: masacrar.* * *1 massacre* * *noun f.* * *SF massacre* * *femenino massacre* * *= massacre, masssacre, bloodshed, carnage, butchery, bloodbath [blood bath], mass killing, decimation.Ex. Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as massacres when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.Ex. Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.Ex. The author deals with the vexed issue of copyright passing from the bloodshed provoked by St. Columba's unauthorized copying of a neighbour's book of Psalms in the Sixth century, through the invention of royalties for glassblowers during the Renaissance to Microsoft's problems with free software.Ex. This new horror genre uses humor in the midst of violent gore & carnage.Ex. They charge the West, which has chosen to look the other way, with complicity in the butchery.Ex. The story amounts to blind love equals bloodbath and media exploitation in rural America.Ex. By way of background, Mr. Pateman also denies that the Khmer Rouge committed mass killings in Cambodia.Ex. Over the past decades librarians have been variously outraged and resigned to budget cuts and spiralling prices, leading to the decimation of their holdings.* * *femenino massacre* * *= massacre, masssacre, bloodshed, carnage, butchery, bloodbath [blood bath], mass killing, decimation.Ex: Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as massacres when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.
Ex: Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.Ex: The author deals with the vexed issue of copyright passing from the bloodshed provoked by St. Columba's unauthorized copying of a neighbour's book of Psalms in the Sixth century, through the invention of royalties for glassblowers during the Renaissance to Microsoft's problems with free software.Ex: This new horror genre uses humor in the midst of violent gore & carnage.Ex: They charge the West, which has chosen to look the other way, with complicity in the butchery.Ex: The story amounts to blind love equals bloodbath and media exploitation in rural America.Ex: By way of background, Mr. Pateman also denies that the Khmer Rouge committed mass killings in Cambodia.Ex: Over the past decades librarians have been variously outraged and resigned to budget cuts and spiralling prices, leading to the decimation of their holdings.* * *massacre* * *
Del verbo masacrar: ( conjugate masacrar)
masacré es:
1ª persona singular (yo) pretérito indicativo
masacre es:
1ª persona singular (yo) presente subjuntivo3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente subjuntivo3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) imperativo
Multiple Entries:
masacrar
masacre
masacrar ( conjugate masacrar) verbo transitivo
to massacre
masacre sustantivo femenino
massacre
masacrar verbo transitivo to massacre
masacre sustantivo femenino massacre
' masacre' also found in these entries:
English:
massacre
- slaughter
- blood
* * *masacre nfmassacre* * *f massacre* * *masacre nf: massacre* * *masacre n slaughter -
9 matanza
f.1 slaughter (masacre).2 slaughtering (del cerdo). (peninsular Spanish)3 killing, bloodbath, bloodshed, butchery.* * *1 (gen) slaughter2 (del cerdo) pig killing* * *noun f.* * *SF1) [en batalla] slaughter, killing; (Agr) slaughtering; (=temporada) slaughtering season; (fig) slaughter, massacre2) Caribe (=matadero) slaughterhouse; And (=tienda) butcher's, butcher's shop; CAm (=mercado) meat market* * *femenino ( acción de matar) killing, slaughter; (de res, cerdo) slaughter* * *= massacre, slaughter, slaughtering, killing, mass murder, bloodshed, carnage, butchery, mass killing, kill, slaying.Ex. Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as massacres when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.Ex. Attention has focussed on the marketing of dangerous substances, safety standards for the slaughter of meat and poultry, and control of dangerous cosmetics.Ex. These programmes cover red meat slaughterhouses, ware potatoes, liquid milk processing, horticulture, cereals, fisheries, and pigmeat slaughtering and processing.Ex. This article reports on the coverage by the New York Times of the killing of a hostage victim during a highjack.Ex. Some authors concluded that mass murder was analogous to 'femicide'.Ex. The author deals with the vexed issue of copyright passing from the bloodshed provoked by St. Columba's unauthorized copying of a neighbour's book of Psalms in the Sixth century, through the invention of royalties for glassblowers during the Renaissance to Microsoft's problems with free software.Ex. This new horror genre uses humor in the midst of violent gore & carnage.Ex. They charge the West, which has chosen to look the other way, with complicity in the butchery.Ex. By way of background, Mr. Pateman also denies that the Khmer Rouge committed mass killings in Cambodia.Ex. Early rise as your try and catch the predators after their nightly kill.Ex. A mobster believed to be the head of an organized crime clan involved in the slaying of six people has been arrested this morning.----* autor de una matanza = mass murderer.* matanza indiscriminada = killing spree, shooting spree, shooting rampage.* * *femenino ( acción de matar) killing, slaughter; (de res, cerdo) slaughter* * *= massacre, slaughter, slaughtering, killing, mass murder, bloodshed, carnage, butchery, mass killing, kill, slaying.Ex: Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as massacres when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.
Ex: Attention has focussed on the marketing of dangerous substances, safety standards for the slaughter of meat and poultry, and control of dangerous cosmetics.Ex: These programmes cover red meat slaughterhouses, ware potatoes, liquid milk processing, horticulture, cereals, fisheries, and pigmeat slaughtering and processing.Ex: This article reports on the coverage by the New York Times of the killing of a hostage victim during a highjack.Ex: Some authors concluded that mass murder was analogous to 'femicide'.Ex: The author deals with the vexed issue of copyright passing from the bloodshed provoked by St. Columba's unauthorized copying of a neighbour's book of Psalms in the Sixth century, through the invention of royalties for glassblowers during the Renaissance to Microsoft's problems with free software.Ex: This new horror genre uses humor in the midst of violent gore & carnage.Ex: They charge the West, which has chosen to look the other way, with complicity in the butchery.Ex: By way of background, Mr. Pateman also denies that the Khmer Rouge committed mass killings in Cambodia.Ex: Early rise as your try and catch the predators after their nightly kill.Ex: A mobster believed to be the head of an organized crime clan involved in the slaying of six people has been arrested this morning.* autor de una matanza = mass murderer.* matanza indiscriminada = killing spree, shooting spree, shooting rampage.* * *A (acción de matar) killing, slaughter; (de una res, un cerdo) slaughterla matanza se hace cada año en noviembre the animals are slaughtered in November each yearla matanza de ciudadanos inocentes the slaughter o killing of innocent citizens* * *
matanza sustantivo femenino ( acción de matar) killing, slaughter;
(de res, cerdo) slaughter;
matanza sustantivo femenino slaughter
' matanza' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
carnicería
- salvaje
English:
carnage
- massacre
- orgy
- slaughter
- wholesale
- killing
* * *matanza nf1. [masacre] slaughter2. [de cerdo] [acción] slaughtering* * ** * *matanza nfmasacre: slaughter, butchering* * *matanza n slaughter -
10 batalla
f.1 battle.batalla campal pitched battlebatalla naval naval o sea battle2 wheelbase.pres.indicat.3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: batallar.* * *1 battle\de batalla familiar ordinary, everydaybatalla campal pitched battle* * *noun f.* * *SF1) (=lucha) battlelibrar o trabar batalla — to do battle
2) (=sufrimiento) fight, struggle3) (Aut) wheelbase* * *a) ( lucha) battlede batalla — (fam) <zapatos/abrigo> everyday (before n)
dar batalla — (Méx, Ven fam)
b) ( interior) struggle, battle* * *= battle.Ex. Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and battles when the colonists won.----* batalla campal = pitched battle, field battle.* batalla + continuar = battle + rage.* batalla diaria = daily grind.* batalla judicial = legal battle.* batalla legal = legal battle.* batalla naval = war at sea, naval battle.* batalla perdida = losing battle.* buque de batalla = battle cruiser.* caballo de batalla = uphill struggle, hobby-horse, war horse, charger.* caballo de batalla medieval = destrier.* caer en batalla = fall in + battle.* campo de batalla = battleground, battlefield.* como un campo de batalla = like a war zone.* crucero de batalla = battle cruiser.* frente de batalla, el = battlefront, the.* ganar una batalla = win + battle.* haber ganado la mitad de la batalla = be half the battle.* haber ganado sólo la mitad de la batalla = be only half the battle.* librar una batalla = wage + battle.* luchar una batalla perdida = fight + a losing battle.* perder una batalla = lose + battle.* puesto de batalla = battle-station.* tener ganada la mitad de la batalla = be half the battle.* tener ganada sólo la mitad de la batalla = be only half the battle.* * *a) ( lucha) battlede batalla — (fam) <zapatos/abrigo> everyday (before n)
dar batalla — (Méx, Ven fam)
b) ( interior) struggle, battle* * *= battle.Ex: Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and battles when the colonists won.
* batalla campal = pitched battle, field battle.* batalla + continuar = battle + rage.* batalla diaria = daily grind.* batalla judicial = legal battle.* batalla legal = legal battle.* batalla naval = war at sea, naval battle.* batalla perdida = losing battle.* buque de batalla = battle cruiser.* caballo de batalla = uphill struggle, hobby-horse, war horse, charger.* caballo de batalla medieval = destrier.* caer en batalla = fall in + battle.* campo de batalla = battleground, battlefield.* como un campo de batalla = like a war zone.* crucero de batalla = battle cruiser.* frente de batalla, el = battlefront, the.* ganar una batalla = win + battle.* haber ganado la mitad de la batalla = be half the battle.* haber ganado sólo la mitad de la batalla = be only half the battle.* librar una batalla = wage + battle.* luchar una batalla perdida = fight + a losing battle.* perder una batalla = lose + battle.* puesto de batalla = battle-station.* tener ganada la mitad de la batalla = be half the battle.* tener ganada sólo la mitad de la batalla = be only half the battle.* * *A1 (lucha) battlela batalla contra la ignorancia the battle against ignorancelibrar batalla to do battlelibraron una larga batalla contra el analfabetismo they waged a long battle against illiteracyuna gran batalla se estaba librando en su interior there was a great battle o struggle going on within himdar batalla (Méx, Ven fam): estos niños dan batalla todo el día these kids don't let up for one minute ( colloq)un problema que le ha dado mucha batalla a problem which has caused her a lot of hassle ( colloq)dar la batalla to put up a fight2 ( fam) (gran esfuerzo) struggle, battle3 ( fam) (historia) story4 ( Art) battlepiece, battle sceneCompuestos:pitched battleB ( Auto) wheelbase* * *
Del verbo batallar: ( conjugate batallar)
batalla es:
3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo
Multiple Entries:
batalla
batallar
batalla sustantivo femenino
battle;
batalla campal pitched battle;
de batalla (fam) ‹zapatos/abrigo› everyday ( before n)
batallar ( conjugate batallar) verbo intransitivo
batalla con algn/algo ( lidiar) to battle with sb/sthb) (Mil) to fight
batalla sustantivo femenino
1 battle
(política, con uno mismo) struggle 2 batalla campal, pitched battle
figurado fight, row: la reunión se convirtió en una verdadera batalla campal, the meeting turned into a real pitched battle
♦ Locuciones: dar la batalla, to fight
dar mucha batalla, to be a lot of trouble
de batalla, ordinary everyday: necesito comprarme un traje de batalla, I need to buy an ordinary everyday suit
batallar verbo intransitivo to fight, quarrel
' batalla' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
caballo
- campal
- campo
- cruenta
- cruento
- fiera
- fiero
- ganarse
- media
- medio
- perder
- reñir
- sarracina
- librar
- reñido
English:
arena
- Armageddon
- armistice
- battle
- battlefield
- bitter
- bitterness
- bloody
- day
- decisive
- fight
- grim
- hobbyhorse
- lull
- mock
- pitched battle
- site
- spell
- better
* * *♦ nf1. [con armas] battle;una batalla de bolas de nieve a snowball fight;presentar batalla to give battletambién Fig batalla campal pitched battle; Hist la batalla de Inglaterra the Battle of Britain;batalla naval naval o sea battle2. [por una cosa] battle;la batalla contra el crimen/la inflación the battle o fight against crime/inflation;una batalla legal a legal battle;presentar batalla to put up a fight;presentar batalla a algo/alguien to tackle sth/sb, to take sth/sb on3. [esfuerzo] struggle;aceptar su muerte le supuso una dura batalla it was a real struggle for her to come to terms with his death4. Aut wheelbase♦ de batalla loc adj[de uso diario] everyday* * *f battle;de batalla ropa everyday* * *batalla nf1) : battle2) : fight, struggle3)de batalla : ordinary, everydaymis zapatos de batalla: my everyday shoes* * *batalla n battle -
11 colono
f. & m.colonist, colon, planter, settler.m.settler, colonist.* * *1 (habitante) colonist, settler2 AGRICULTURA tenant farmer* * *(f. - colona)noun1) colonizer, settler* * *colono, -aSM / F1) [de país, territorio] colonist; (=nativo de una colonia) colonial2) (Agr) tenant farmer3) Caribe [de azúcar] sugar planter4) And ( Hist) (=indio) Indian bound to an estate* * *1) ( inmigrante) colonist2) (Agr) ( en tierras baldías) settler; ( en tierras arrendadas) tenant farmer* * *= colonist, homesteader, settler.Ex. Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.Ex. Here came every sort of human ingredient -- sturdy homesteaders, skilled craftsmen, precious scoundrels.Ex. In the 1920s and 1930s more than 1 million books were being loaned each year to members as far afield as the most isolated settlers' gangs working on distant branch lines.* * *1) ( inmigrante) colonist2) (Agr) ( en tierras baldías) settler; ( en tierras arrendadas) tenant farmer* * *= colonist, homesteader, settler.Ex: Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and BATTLES when the colonists won.
Ex: Here came every sort of human ingredient -- sturdy homesteaders, skilled craftsmen, precious scoundrels.Ex: In the 1920s and 1930s more than 1 million books were being loaned each year to members as far afield as the most isolated settlers' gangs working on distant branch lines.* * *A (inmigrante) colonist* * *
colono sustantivo masculino
( en tierras arrendadas) tenant farmer
colono sustantivo masculino settler
' colono' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
establecer
English:
colonist
- settler
* * *colono nm1. [colonizador] settler, colonist2. [agricultor] tenant farmer* * *m, colona f1 colonist2 AGR tenant farmer* * *colono, -na n1) : settler, colonist2) : tenant farmer -
12 lucha
f.1 fight.la lucha contra el cáncer the fight against cancerlucha de clases class struggle o warlucha libre all-in wrestling2 tug-of-war.pres.indicat.3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: luchar.* * *1 (gen) fight, struggle2 DEPORTE wrestling\lucha de clases class strugglelucha libre free-style wrestling* * *noun f.1) fight2) struggle3) wrestling* * *SF [forma familiar] de Luz, Lucía* * *1) (combate, pelea) fight; ( para conseguir algo) struggle2) (Dep) wrestling•* * *= combat, contention, scramble, fight, struggle, fray, crusade, strife, contest, fighting, tug of war, battle.Ex. It is not without significance perhaps that some writers on the reference interview use the term 'encounter', which the Concise Oxford Dictionary defines as 'meet as adversary', 'meeting in combat'.Ex. Among the trends are: more focus on user needs, a contention between optical products and on-line access; and a focus in the USA on formulation of major information policies.Ex. Mergers and acquisitions are playing an increasing important part in corporate strategies, stimulated by the scramble for market position in the new Europe.Ex. The proud mother, as a result, had been a leader in the fight to establish a program for the 'gifted and talented' in the public school system.Ex. The struggle to make the library an integral part of the educational process is a long-standing one which has yet to be resolved.Ex. The academic librarian, by remaining neutral, can stay above the fray and does not need to take sides in order to provide scholars with access to the truth.Ex. The Thatcher government's crusade for privatisation is also hitting British libraries.Ex. If performance evaluation is viewed as a tool of second or third-level by supervisors it loses its clout and encourages strife.Ex. Anyway, experience had taught him that a subordinate who attempts to subdue a superordinate is almost always lost; the superordinate has too many advantages in such a contest.Ex. The children were involved in manual labour, guard duty, front-line fighting, bomb manufacture, setting sea/land mines & radio & communication.Ex. Library administrators might be able to predict their fortunes in the academic tug of war for funds if they understood more clearly the attitudes of institutional administrators towards libraries.Ex. Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and battles when the colonists won.----* emprender una lucha contra = launch + attack on.* en la lucha contra = in the battle against.* enzarzarse en la lucha = engage in + combat.* enzarzarse en una lucha a muerte = get into + a fight to the death.* lucha a muerte = fight to death.* lucha armada = armed struggle.* lucha contra las drogas = war on drugs.* lucha contra los insectos = pest control.* lucha de clases = class warfare.* lucha de ingenio = battle of wits.* lucha de poderes = power struggle, battle of wills.* lucha de resistencia = battle of wills.* lucha diaria = daily grind.* luchador de lucha libre = wrestler.* lucha enconada = bitter struggle.* lucha entre tres = three-horse race.* lucha hasta la muerte = fight to death.* lucha intelectual = battle of wits.* lucha libre = professional wrestling, wrestling.* lucha por el poder = power struggle.* lucha por el título = title race.* luchas internas = infighting [in-fighting].* lucha territorial = turf war.* * *1) (combate, pelea) fight; ( para conseguir algo) struggle2) (Dep) wrestling•* * *= combat, contention, scramble, fight, struggle, fray, crusade, strife, contest, fighting, tug of war, battle.Ex: It is not without significance perhaps that some writers on the reference interview use the term 'encounter', which the Concise Oxford Dictionary defines as 'meet as adversary', 'meeting in combat'.
Ex: Among the trends are: more focus on user needs, a contention between optical products and on-line access; and a focus in the USA on formulation of major information policies.Ex: Mergers and acquisitions are playing an increasing important part in corporate strategies, stimulated by the scramble for market position in the new Europe.Ex: The proud mother, as a result, had been a leader in the fight to establish a program for the 'gifted and talented' in the public school system.Ex: The struggle to make the library an integral part of the educational process is a long-standing one which has yet to be resolved.Ex: The academic librarian, by remaining neutral, can stay above the fray and does not need to take sides in order to provide scholars with access to the truth.Ex: The Thatcher government's crusade for privatisation is also hitting British libraries.Ex: If performance evaluation is viewed as a tool of second or third-level by supervisors it loses its clout and encourages strife.Ex: Anyway, experience had taught him that a subordinate who attempts to subdue a superordinate is almost always lost; the superordinate has too many advantages in such a contest.Ex: The children were involved in manual labour, guard duty, front-line fighting, bomb manufacture, setting sea/land mines & radio & communication.Ex: Library administrators might be able to predict their fortunes in the academic tug of war for funds if they understood more clearly the attitudes of institutional administrators towards libraries.Ex: Encounters between indigenous and colonizing peoples are described as MASSACRES when the indigenous people won and battles when the colonists won.* emprender una lucha contra = launch + attack on.* en la lucha contra = in the battle against.* enzarzarse en la lucha = engage in + combat.* enzarzarse en una lucha a muerte = get into + a fight to the death.* lucha a muerte = fight to death.* lucha armada = armed struggle.* lucha contra las drogas = war on drugs.* lucha contra los insectos = pest control.* lucha de clases = class warfare.* lucha de ingenio = battle of wits.* lucha de poderes = power struggle, battle of wills.* lucha de resistencia = battle of wills.* lucha diaria = daily grind.* luchador de lucha libre = wrestler.* lucha enconada = bitter struggle.* lucha entre tres = three-horse race.* lucha hasta la muerte = fight to death.* lucha intelectual = battle of wits.* lucha libre = professional wrestling, wrestling.* lucha por el poder = power struggle.* lucha por el título = title race.* luchas internas = infighting [in-fighting].* lucha territorial = turf war.* * *A1 (combate, pelea) fight2 (para conseguir algo, superar un problema) struggledecidieron abandonar la lucha they decided to give up the strugglela eterna lucha entre el bien y el mal the eternal struggle between good and evillas luchas internas están debilitando el partido infighting o internal conflict is weakening the partyuna campaña de lucha contra el hambre a campaign to combat faminela lucha por la supervivencia the fight o struggle for survivalla lucha contra el cáncer the fight against cancerCompuestos:armed struggle o conflictclass struggleB ( Dep) wrestlingCompuestos:cage fightingall-in wrestling, freestyle wrestlingtag wrestling* * *
Del verbo luchar: ( conjugate luchar)
lucha es:
3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo
Multiple Entries:
lucha
luchar
lucha sustantivo femenino
( para conseguir algo) struggle;
la lucha contra el cáncer the fight against cancerb) (Dep) wrestling;
luchar ( conjugate luchar) verbo intransitivo
lucha por la paz to fight for peace
d) (Dep) to wrestle
lucha sustantivo femenino
1 (combate) fight
lucha libre, wrestling
2 (trabajo, esfuerzo) struggle: hubo una lucha interna para cambiar a los dirigentes del partido, there was internal turmoil regarding replacing party heads
lucha de clases, class struggle
luchar verbo transitivo to fight wrestle
♦ Locuciones: luchar con uñas y dientes, to fight nail and tooth
' lucha' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
antiterrorista
- cuartel
- duelo
- pelea
- abandonar
- armado
- continuo
- cooperar
- desigual
- equilibrado
- guerrilla
- implacable
- llave
- pugna
- sostener
English:
all-in wrestling
- battle
- charity
- class struggle
- contest
- desperate
- fight
- grim
- struggle
- throw
- tug-of-war
- tussle
- war
- wrestling
- warden
* * *lucha nf1. [combate físico] fightla lucha armada the armed struggle2. [enfrentamiento] fight;la lucha contra el cáncer/el desempleo the fight against cancer/unemployment;hubo una lucha muy dura por el liderato the leadership was bitterly contested;fracasó en su lucha por cambiar la ley she failed in her struggle o fight to change the law;las luchas internas del partido the in-fighting within the partylucha de clases class struggle3. [esfuerzo] struggle;es una lucha conseguir que se coman todo it's a struggle to get them to eat it all up4. [deporte] wrestlinglucha grecorromana Graeco-Roman wrestling;lucha libre freestyle o all-in wrestling5. [en baloncesto] jump ballLUCHA LIBRELucha libre, or freestyle wrestling, is a very popular spectator sport in Mexico and features comical masked wrestlers who often become larger-than-life figures. In any fight there will be a goodie (“técnico”) and a baddie (“rudo”) and the action consists of spectacularly acrobatic leaps and throws, and pantomime violence. These wrestlers are so popular that they often feature in special wrestling magazines, as well as on television and radio. The most famous of all was “el Santo” (The Saint), who always wore a distinctive silver mask. He appeared in dozens of films and is still remembered with affection despite his death in 1984.* * *f1 fight, struggle2 DEP wrestling3 en baloncesto jump ball* * *lucha nf1) : struggle, fight2) : wrestling* * *lucha n fight / struggle -
13 Te Uri O Hau
Hapu of the Ngati WhatuaThe people of Te Uri O Hau were among the first Maori to populate Aotearoa, descending from the Waka - Mahuhu (one of the pre-hekenui waka of 1350 circa & one out of a few to bring a colonizing capacity [one other being the waka - Mamaari]) In those earlier days it was said that the people lived at Muriwhenua (in the North) that there were other people here on our arrival (the patupaiarehe) life continued harmoniously until the murder of a patupaiarehe occurred causing upheaval & fighting amongst the people of Muriwhenua who then all went their separate ways... in those days the people were more nomadic & raw they moved about & it wasn't until after the eponymous ancestor of Te Uri O Hau settled at Pouto that Te Uri O Hau became known as such. -
14 CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
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Dictionary of Brazilian Literature. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1988.■ TRAVEL AND TOURIST GUIDES ON PORTUGAL■ Ballard, Sam, and Jane Ballard. Pousadas of Portugal: Unique Lodgings in State-owned Castles, Palaces, Mansions and Hotels. Boston: Harvard Common, 1986.■ Bridge, Ann, and Susan Lowndes Marques. The Selective Traveller in Portugal. London: Chatto & Windus, 1968.■ Ellingham, Mark, et al. Portugal: The Rough Guide. London: Rough Guides, 2008 ed.■ Hogg, Anthony. Travellers' Portugal. London: Solo Mio, 1983.■ Kite, Cynthia, and Ralph Kite. Portuguese Country Inns & Pousadas. New York: Warner Books; Karen Brown's Country Inn Series, 1988.■ Lowndes, Susan, ed. Fodor's Portugal 1991. New York: Fodor's, 1990.■ Proença Raúl, and Sant'anna Dionísio, eds. Guía De Portugal. I. Generalidades. Lisboa E, Arredores. Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1924; 1983.■ Robertson, Ian. Portugal: Blue Guide. London: Benn; New York: Norton, 2000 and later eds.■ Stoop, Anne de. Living in Portugal. 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Costa Gomes-o Ultimo Marechal. Lisbon: Edit. Noticias, 1998.■ Domingos, Emídio Da Veiga. Portugal Político. Análise das Instituiçoes. Lisbon, 1989.■ Goldey, David. "Elections and the Consolidation of Portuguese Democracy: 1974-1983." Electoral Studies 2, 3 (1983): 229-40.■ Graham, Lawrence S. "Institutionalizing Democracy: Governance in Post-1974 Portugal." In Ali Farazmand, ed., Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration, 81-90. New York: Dekker, 1991.■, and Douglas L. Wheeler, eds. In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Gunther, Richard. "Spain and Portugal." In G. A. Dorfman and P. J. Duignan, eds., Politics in Western Europe, 186-236. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1988.■ Magone, José Maria. European Portugal: The Difficult Road to Sustainable Democracy. Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1997.■ Maxwell, Kenneth. The Making of Portuguese Democracy. 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Portugal ( Including the Azores and Spain) in Search of New Directions: Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976.■ Pereira, J. Pacheco. "A Case of Orthodoxy: The Communist Party of Portugal." In Waller and Fenema, eds., Communist Parties in Western Europe: Adaptation or Decline? Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.■ Pilmott, Ben. "Socialism in Portugal: Was It a Revolution?" Government and Opposition 7 (Summer 1977).■. "Were the Soldiers Revolutionary? The Armed Forces Movement in Portugal, 1973-1976." Iberian Studies 7, 1 (1978): 13-21.■, and Jean Seaton. "Political Power and the Portuguese Media." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 43-57. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Porch, Douglas. The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution. London: Croom Helm and Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1977.■ Pouchin, Dominique. Portugal, quelle révolution? 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Uma Só Fé. Conversas Com Adelino Da Palma Carlos. Lisbon, 1988. Sanches Osôrio, J. The Betrayal of the 25th of April in Portugal. Madrid: Sedmay, 1975.■ Schmitter, Philippe C. "Liberation by Golpe: Retrospective Thoughts on the Demise of Authoritarian Rule in Portugal." Armed Forces and Society 2 (1974): 5-33.■. "An Introduction to Southern European Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Italy, Greece, Portugal, Spain and Turkey." In G. O'Donnell,■ P. C. Schmitter, and L. Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, 3-10. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.■ Silva, Fernando Dioga da. "Uma Administração Envelhecido." Revista da Ad-ministraçao Pública 2 (Oct.-Dec. 1979).■ Simões, Martinho, ed. Relatório Do 25 De Novembro: Texto Integral, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1976.■ Soares, Isabel, ed. Mário Soares: O homem e o político. Lisbon, 1976. Soares, Mário. Democratização e Descolonização: Dez meses no Governo Provisório. Lisbon, 1975. Sobel, Lester A., ed. Portuguese Revolution, 1974-1976. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1976.■ Spínola, Antônio de. Portugal e o Futuro. Lisbon, 1974.■. País Sem Rumo: Contributo para a História de uma Revolução. Lisbon, 1978.■ Story, Jonathan. "Portugal's Revolution of Carnations: Patterns of Change and Continuity." International Affairs 52 (July 1976): 417-34. Sweezey, Paul. "Class Struggles in Portugal." Monthly Review 27, 4 (Sept. 1975): 1-26.■ Szulc, Tad. "Lisbon and Washington: Behind Portugal's Revolution." Foreign Policy 21 (Winter 1975-76): 3-62. Tavares de Almeida, Antônio. Balsemão: O retrato. Lisbon, 1981. "Vasco." Desenhos Políticos. Lisbon, 1974.■ Vasconcelos, Alvaro. "Portugal in Atlantic-Mediterranean Security." In Douglas T. Stuart, ed., Politics and Security in the Southern Region of the Atlantic Alliance, 117-36. London: Macmillan, 1988.■ Wheeler, Douglas L. "Golpes militares e golpes literários. A literatura do golpe de 25 de Abril de 1974 em contexto histôrico." Penélope. Fazer E Desfazer A História, 19-20 (1998): 191-212.■. "Tributo ao Historiador dos Historiadores. Memorias de A.H.de Oliveira Marques (1933-2007)," Historia XXIX, 95, III series (March 2007), 18-22.■ Wiarda, Howard J. Transcending Corporatism? The Portuguese Corporative System and the Revolution of 1974. Columbia: Institute of International Studies, University of South Carolina, 1976.■. The Transition to Democracy in Spain and Portugal. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1989. Wise, Audrey. Eyewitness in Revolutionary Portugal. With a Preface by Judith Hart, MP. London: Spokesman, 1975.■ PHYSICAL FEATURES: GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, FAUNA, AND FLORA■ Birot, Pierre. Le Portugal: Étude de géographie régionale. Paris, 1950.■ Embleton, Clifford. Geomorphology of Europe. London: Macmillan, 1984.■ Girão, Aristides de Amorim. Divisão regional, divisão agrícola e divisão administrativa. Coimbra, 1932.■. Condições geográficos e históricas de autonomia política de Portugal. Coimbra, 1935.■. Atlas de Portugal, 2nd ed. Coimbra, 1958.■ Ribeiro, Orlando. Portugal, O Mediterrâneo e o Altântico. Coimbra, 1945 and later eds.■. Portugal. Volume V of Geografia de Espana y Portugal. Barcelona, 1955.■. Ensaios de Geografia Humana e regio nal. Lisbon, 1970.■. A geografia e a divisão regional do país. Lisbon, 1970.■ Stanislawski, Dan. The Individuality of Portugal. Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1959.■. Portugal's Other Kingdom: The Algarve. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1963.■ Taylor, Albert William. Wild Flowers of Spain and Portugal. London: Chatto & Windus, 1972.■ Way, Ruth, and Margaret Simmons. A Geography of Spain and Portugal. London: Methuen, 1962.■ ARCHAEOLOGY AND PREHISTORY■ "Actas do Colóquio Inter-Universitário do Noroeste Peninsular (Porto-Baião, 1988), vol. II, Proto-História, romanização e Idade Média." In Trabalhos de antropologia e etnologia. 28, 3-4 (1988).■ Alarcão, Jorge de, ed. "Do Paleolítico va arte visigótica." Vol. 1, História da■ Arte em Portugal. Lisbon: Alfa, 1986.■. Roman Portugal, 3 vols. Warminister, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■. Portugal Das Orígens A Romanização. Vol. I. In J. Serrão and A. H. de Oliveira Marques, eds. Nova História de Portugal. Lisbon: Presença, 1990. Anderson, James M., and M. S. Lea. Portugal 1001 Sights: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary and Robert Hale, 1994.■ Balmuth, Miriam S., Antonio Gilman, and Lourdes Prados-Torreira, eds. Encounters and Transformations: The Archaeology of Iberia in Transition. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology, no. 7. Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.■ Beirão, C. M. M. Une civilization protohistorique du Sud au Portugal ( 1er Age du Fer). Paris: D. Boccard, 1986.■ Cardoso, João Luís, Santinho A. Cunha, and Delberto Aguiar. O Homem Pre-Histórico no Concelho de Oeiras. Oeiras, Portugal: Estudos Arquelógicos de Oeiras, 1991.■ Harrison, Richard J. The Bell Beaker Cultures of Spain and Portugal. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977.■ Mangas, Júlio, ed. Hispania epigraphica. Madrid, 1989.■ Maloney, Stephanie J. "The Villa of Toerre de Palma, Portugal: Archaeology and Preservation." Portuguese Studies Review VIII, 1 (Fall-Winter, 1999-2000): 14-28.■ Savory, H. N. Spain and Portugal: The Prehistory of the Iberian Peninsula. London, 1968.■ Silva, A. C. F. A cultura castreja no Noroeste de Portugal. Paços de Ferreira:■ Museu da Citânia de Sanfins, 1986. Straus, L. G. Iberia before the Iberians. Albuquerque, N.M., 1992.■ FOREIGN TRAVELERS AND RESIDENTS' ACCOUNTS■ Andersen, Hans Christian. A Visit to Portugal 1866. London: Peter Owen, 1972.■ Beckford, William. Italy, with Sketches of Spain and Portugal. Paris: Baudry's European Library, 1834.■ Boyd Alexander, ed. London: Hart-Davies, 1954.■. Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcoboca and Batalha. Fontwell, U.K.: Centaur Press, 1972.■ Bell, Aubrey F. G. In Portugal. London: Bodley Head, 1912.■ Borrow, George. The Bible in Spain, 2 vols. London: Constable, 1923 ed.■ Chaves, Castelo Branco. Os livros de viagens em Portugal no século XVIII e a sua projecção europeia. Lisbon, 1977.■ Costigan, Arthur William. Sketches of Society and Manners in Portugal. London: T. Vernon, 1787.■ Crawfurd, Oswald. Portugal Old and New. London: Kegan, Paul, 1880.■. Round the Calendar in Portugal. London: Chapman & Hall, 1890.■ Darymple, William. Travels through Spain and Portugal in 1774. London: J. Almon, 1777.■ Dumouriez, Charles Francois Duperrier. An Account of Portugal as It Appeared in 1766. London: C. Law, 1797.■ Fielding, Henry. Jonathan Wild and the Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon. London: J. M. Dent, 1932.■ Fullerton, Alice. To Portugal for Pleasure. London: Grafton, 1945.■ Gibbons, John. I Gathered No Moss. London: Robert Hale, 1939.■ Gordon, Jan, and Cora Gordon. Portuguese Somersault. London: Harrap, 1934.■ Hewitt, Richard. A Cottage in Portugal. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.■ Huggett, Frank. South of Lisbon: Winter Travels in Southern Portugal. London: Gollancz, 1960.■ Hume, Martin. Through Portugal. London: Richards, 1907.■ Hyland, Paul. Backwards Out of the Big World: A Voyage into Portugal. Hammersmith, U.K.: HarperCollins, 1996.■ Jackson, Catherine Charlotte, Lady. Fair Lusitania. London: Bentley, 1874.■ Kelly, Marie Node. This Delicious Land Portugal. London: Hutchinson, 1956.■ Kempner, Mary Jean. Invitation to Portugal. New York: Athenaeum, 1969.■ Kingston, William H. G. Lusitanian Sketches of the Pen and Pencil. 2 vol. London: Parker, 1845.■ Landmann, George. Historical, Military and Picturesque Observations on Portugal. 2 vol. London: Cadell and Davies, 1818.■ Latouche, John [Pseudonym of Oswald Crawfurd]. Travels in Portugal. 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Brother Luiz de Sousa [play]. Edgar Prestage, trans. London: Elkin Mathess, 1909.■. Travels in My Homeland. John M. Parker, trans. London: Peter Owen and UNESCO, 1987. Griffin, Jonathan. Camões: Some Poems Translated from the Portuguese by Jonathan Griffin. London: Menard Press, 1976. Jorge, Lídia. The Murmuring Coast. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.■ Lisboa, Eugénio, ed. Portuguese Short Fiction. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet, 1997.■ Lopes, Fernão. The English in Portugal 1367-87: Extracts from the Chronicles of Dom Fernando and Dom João. Derek W. Lomax and R. J. Oakley, eds. and trans. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■ Macedo, Helder, ed. Contemporary Portuguese Poetry: An Anthology in English. Helder Macedo, et al., trans. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet New Press, 1978.■ Martins, J. P. De Oliveira. A History of Iberian Civilization. Aubrey F. G. Bell, trans.; preface by Salvador de Madariaga. New York: Cooper Square, 1969.■ Mendes Pinto, Fernão. 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S. de Winton. Survey of Education in Portugal. London, 1942.■ Hirsch, Elizabeth Feist. Damião de Góis: The Life and Thought of a Portuguese Humanist. The Hague, 1967.■ Lemos, Maximiano. Arquivos de História da Medicina Portuguesa. Several vols. Lisbon, 1886-1923. Vol. I. História da Medicina em Portugal. Doutrina e Instituições. Lisbon, 1899.■ Mira, Matias Ferreira de. História da Medicina Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1948.■ Orta, Garcia de. Colóquios dos Simples e Drogas e Cousas Medicinais da India. Conde de Ficalho, ed., 2 vols. Lisbon, 1891-95.■ Osório, J. Pereira. História e Desenvolvimento da Ciência em Portugal, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1986-89.■ Pina, Luís de. "Uma prioridade portuguesa do século XVI. João de Barros e a Dactiloscópia Oriental." Arquivo da Repartição de Antropologia Criminal IV (1936).■. "As Ciências na História do Império Colonial Português — Séculos XV a XIX." Anais de Faculdade de Ciências do Porto ( 1939-10).■. "Os Portugueses Mestres de Ciência e Metras no Estrangeiro." Actas do Congresso do Mundo Português. Lisbon, 1940.■. "A Ciência em Portugal (bosquejo Histórico)." In Secretariado Nacional da Informação, ed., Portugal: Breviário Da Pátria Para Os Portugueses Ausentes, 277-301. Lisbon, 1946.■ Richards, Robert A. C., ed. Guide to World Science: Vol. 9: Spain and Portugal, 2nd ed. Guernsey, U.K.: F. H. Books, 1974.■ Saraiva, António José. História da Cultura em Portugal, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1950-62.■ ———. "João de Barros." In Serrao, ed., Dicionário de História de Portugal 1 (1963): 307-8.■ Silvestre Ribeiro, José. História dos Establecimentos Scientíficos, Literários e Artísticos de Portugal nos Successivos Reinados da Monarchia, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1871-83.■ Veiga-Pires, J. A., and Ronald G. Grainger, eds. Pioneers in Angiography: The Portuguese School ofAngiography. Lancaster, U.K.: MTP Press, 1982.■ Walker, Timothy. "Doctors, Folk Medicine and the Inquisition: The Repression of Popular Healing in Portugal during the Enlightenment Era." Ph.D. dissertation, History Department, Boston University, 2001.■ Barbosa, Madelena. "Women in Portugal." Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981): 477-80.■ Barreno, Maria Isabel, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa. Novas Cartas Portuguesas. Lisbon, 1972.■ ———. The Three Marias. New Portuguese Letters. Helen R. Lane, trans. New York: Doubleday, 1975.■ Brettell, Caroline B. We Have Already Cried Many Tears: The Stories of Three Portuguese Migrant Women. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1982.■ Ferreira, Virginia. "Engendering Portugal: Social Change, State Politics, and Women's Social Mobilization." In António Costa Pinto, ed., Modern Portugal, 162-88. Palo Alto, Calif.: SPOSS, 1998.■ Goodwin, Mary. "Portuguese Feminism." Portuguese Studies Newsletter 17 (Spring-Summer 1987): 12-13.■ Lamas, Maria. As Mulheres do Meu País. Lisbon, 1948.■ "Mulheres Portuguesas e Feminismo." Análise Social [special number on Portuguese Women and Feminism] 22 (1986): 92-93.■ Osório, Ana de Castro. As Mulheres Portuguesas. Lisbon, 1905.■ Sadlier, Darlene J. The Question of How: Women Writers and New Portuguese Literature. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood; Contributions in Women's Studies, no. 109, 1989.■ Silva, Manuela. The Employment of Women in Portugal. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications, European Communities, 1984. Velho da Costa, Maria. Maina Mendes. Lisbon, 1974.■ Vicente, Ana, and Maria Reynolds de Souza. Family Planning in Portugal. Lisbon, 1984.■ Almeida, Fortunato de. História da Igreja em Portugal. 6 vols. Coimbra, 1910-24, and Oporto, 1967-72. Alonso, Joaquim Maria. The Secret of Fátima: Fact and Legend. Cambridge, Mass.: Ravengate Press, 1979. Alves, José da Felicidade, ed. Católicos e política de Humberto Delgado à Marcelo Caetano. Lisbon, 1969. Araújo, Miguel de, ed. Dicionario político; 1; Os Bispos e a revoluçao de Abril. Lisbon, 1976. Bishko, Charles Julian. Spanish and Portuguese Monastic History 600-1300. London, Variorum Reprints, 1984.■ Blanshard, Paul. Freedom and Catholic Power in Spain and Portugal. Boston: Beacon Press, 1962.■ Boxer, C. R. The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion 1440-1770. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978. Bruneau, Thomas C. "Church and State in Portugal: Crises of Cross and Sword." Journal of Church and State XVIII (1976): 463-90. Freire, José Geraldes. Resistência Católico ao Salazarismo-Marcelismo. Oporto, 1976.■ Herculano, Alexandre. History of the Origin and Establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal. John C. Banner, trans. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1962.■ IPOPE. Estudo sobre liberdade e religião em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973. Johnston, Francis. Fátima: The Great Sign. Chulmleigh, U.K.: Augustine Publications, 1980.■ Kondor, Fr. Louis. Fátima in Lucia's Own Words: Sister Lucia's Memoirs. Fatima: Postulation Center, 1976. Lourenço, Joaquim Maria. Situação jurídica da Igreja em Portugal. Coimbra, 1943.■ Mattoso, José. Religião e Cultura na Idade Média Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1982. Miller, Samuel J. Portugal and Rome c. 1748-1830: An Aspect of Catholic Enlightenment. Rome: Universita Gregoriana Editrice, 1978. O'Malley, John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.■ Pattee, Richard. Portugal and the Portuguese World. Milwaukee, Wisc.: Bruce, 1957.■ Prestage, Edgar. Portugal: A Pioneer of Christianity. Lisbon, 1945.■ Richard, Robert. Etudes sur l'histoire morale et religieuse de Portugal. Paris: Centro Cultural de Gulbenkian, 1970.■ Robinson, Richard A. H. "The Religious Question and Catholic Revival in Portugal, 1900-1930." Journal of Contemporary History XII (1977): 345-62.■. Contemporary Portugal: A History. London: Allen & Unwin, 1979.■ Rodrigues, R. P. Francisco. História da Companhia de Jesus na Assistência de Portugal, 7 vols. Lisbon, 1931-50.■ Roth, Cecil. A History of the Marranos. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1932.■ Agriculture, Viticulture, and Fishing■ Abreu-Ferreira, Darlene. "The Portuguese in Newfoundland: Documentary Evidence Examined." Portuguese Studies Review 4, 1 (1995-96): 11-33.■ Allen, H. Warner. The Wines of Portugal. London: Michael Joseph, 1963.■ Barros, Afonso de. A reforma agrária em Portugal. Oeiras, 1979.■ Beamish, Huldine V. The Hills of Alentejo. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1958.■ Bennett, Norman R. "The Golden Age of the Port Wine System, 1781-1807." The International History Review XII (1990): 221-18.■ Black, Richard. "The Myth of Subsistence: Market Production in the Small Farm Sector of Northern Portugal." Iberian Studies 1, 8 (1989): 25-41.■ Bravo, Pedro, and Duarte de Oliveira. Viticulture Moderna. Lisbon, 1974.■. Vinhas e Vinhos De Portugal. Lisbon, 1979.■ Cabral, Manuel V. "Agrarian Structures and Recent Movements in Portugal." Journal of Peasant Studies 4, 5 (July 1978): 411-45.■ Cardoso, José Carvalho. A Agricultura Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1973.■ Carvalho, Bento de. Guía Dos Vinhos Portugueses. Lisbon, 1982.■ Clarke, Robert. Open Boat Whaling in the Azores: The History and Present Methods of a Relic Industry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954.■ Cockburn, Ernest. Port Wine and Oporto. London: Wine & Spirit, 1949. Cole, S. C. "Cod, Cod Country and Family: The Portuguese Newfoundland Fishery." Mast 3, 1 (1990): 1-29.■ Coull, James. The Fisheries of Europe. London: G. Bell & Sons, 1972.■ Croft-Cooke, Rupert. Port. London: Putnam, 1957.■. Madeira. London: Putnam, 1961.■ Delaforce, John. The Factory House at Oporto. London: Christie's Wine Publications, 1979 and later eds.■ Doel, Patricia A. Port O'Call: Memories of the Portuguese White Fleet in St. John's Newfoundland. St. John's, Newfoundland: ISER, 1992.■ Fletcher, Wyndham. Port: An Introduction to Its History and Delights. London: Bernet, 1978.■ Francis, A. D. The Wine Trade. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1972.■ Freitas, Eduardo, João Ferreira de Almeida, and Manuel Villaverde Cabral. Modalidades de penetração do capitalismo na agricultura: estruturas agrárias em Portugal Continental, 1950-1970. Lisbon, 1976.■ Gonçalves, Francisco Esteves. Portugal: A Wine Country. Lisbon, 1984.■ Gulbenkian Foundation. Agrarian Reform. Lisbon, 1981.■ Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. New York: Walker, 1997.■ Malefakis, Edward. "Two Iberian Land Reforms Compared: Spain, 1931-1936 and Portugal, 1974—1978." In Gulbenkian Foundation, Agrarian Reform. Lisbon, 1981.■ Moutinho, M. História da pesca do bacalhau. Lisbon: Imprensa Universitária, 1985.■ Oliveira Marques, A. H. de. lntrodução a história da agricultura em Portugal.■ Lisbon, 1968. Pato, Octávio. O Vinho. Lisbon, 1971.■ Pearson, Scott R. Portuguese Agriculture in Transition. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987.■ Postgate, Raymond. Portuguese Wine. London: Dent, 1969.■ Read, Jan. The Wines of Portugal. London: Faber & Faber, 1982.■ Robertson, George. Port. London: Faber & Faber, 1982 ed.■ Rutledge, Ian. "Land Reform and the Portuguese Revolution." Journal of Peasant Studies 5, 1 (Oct. 1977): 79-97.■ Sanceau, Elaine. The British Factory at Oporto. Oporto, 1970.■ Simon, Andre L. Port. London: Constable, 1934.■ Simões, J. Os grandes trabalhadores do Mar: Reportagens na Terra Nova e na Groenlândia. Lisbon: Gazeta dos Caminho de Ferro, 1942.■ Smith, Diana. Portugal and the Challenge of 1992: Special Report. New York: Camões Center/RIIC, Columbia University, 1990.■ Stanislawski, Dan. Landscapes of Bacchus: The Vine in Portugal. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970.■ Teixeira, Carlos, and Victor M. Pereira da Rosa, eds. The Portuguese in Canada: From the Seat to the City. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000.■ Unwin, Tim. "Farmers' Perceptions of Agrarian Change in Northwest Portugal." Journal of Rural Studies 1, 4 (1985): 339-57.■ Valadão do Valle, E. Bacalhau: tradições históricas e económicos. Lisbon, 1991.■ Venables, Bernard. Baleia! The Whalers of Azores. London: Bodley Head, 1968.■ Villiers, Alan. The Quest of the Schooner Argus: A Voyage to the Banks and Greenland. New York: Scribners, 1951. World Bank. Portugal: Agricultural Survey. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978.■ ECONOMY, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT■ Aiyer, Srivain, and Shahid A. Chandry. Portugal and the E.E.C.: Employment and Implications. Lisbon, 1979.■ Baklanoff, Eric N. The Economic Transformation of Spain and Portugal. New York: Praeger, 1978.■. "Changing Systems: The Portuguese Revolution and the Public Enterprise Sector." ACES ( Association of Comparative Economic Studies) Bulletin 26 (Summer-Fall 1984): 63-76.■. "Portugal's Political Economy: Old and New." In K. Maxwell and M. Haltzel, eds., Portugal: Ancient Country, Young Democracy, 37-59. Washington, D.C.: Wilson Center Press, 1990.■ Barbosa, Manuel P. Growth, Migration and the Balance of Payments in a Small, Open Economy. New York: Garland, 1984.■ Braga de Macedo, Jorge, and Simon Serfaty, eds. Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1981.■ Carvalho, Camilo, et al. Sabotagem Econômica: " Dossier" Banco Espírito Santo e Comercial de Lisboa. Lisbon, 1975.■ Corkill, David. The Development of the Portuguese Economy: A Case of Euro-peanization. London: Routledge, 1999.■ Cravinho, João. "The Portuguese Economy: Constraints and Opportunities." In K. Maxwell, ed., Portugal in the 1980s, 111-65. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■ Dornsbusch, Rudiger, Richard S. Eckhaus, and Lane Taylor. "Analysis and Projection of Macroeconomic Conditions in Portugal." In L. S. Graham and H. M. Makler, eds., Contemporary Portugal, 299-330. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.■ The Economist (London). "On the Edge of Europe: A Survey of Portugal." (June 30, 1981): 3-27.■. "Coming Home: A Survey of Portugal." (May 28, 1988).■. 'The New Iberia: Not Quite Kissing Cousins" [Spain and Portugal]. (May 5, 1990): 21-24.■ Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian and German Marshall Fund of the U.S., eds. II Conferência Internacional sobre e Economia Portuguesa, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1979.■ Hudson, Mark. Portugal to 1993: Investing in a European Future. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit/Special Report No. 11 57/EIU Economic Prospects Series, 1989.■ International Labour Office (ILO). Employment and Basic Needs in Portugal. Geneva: ILO, 1979.■ Kavalsky, Basil, and Surendra Agarwal. Portugal: Current and Prospective Economic Trends. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978.■ Krugman, Paul, and Jorge Braga de Macedo. "The Economic Consequences of the April 25th Revolution." Economia III (1979): 455-83.■ Lewis, John R., and Alan M. Williams. "The Sines Project: Portugal's Growth Centre or White Elephant?" Town Planning Review 56, 3 (1985): 339-66.■ Makler, Harry M. "The Consequences of the Survival and Revival of the Industrial Bourgeoisie." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 251-83. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Marques, A. La Politique Economique Portugaise dans la Période de la Dictature ( 1926-1974). Doctoral thesis, 3rd cycle, University of Grenoble, France, 1980.■ Martins, B. Sociedades e grupos em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973.■ Mata, Eugenia, and Nuno Valério. História Econômica De Portugal: Uma Perspectiva Global. Lisbon: Edit. Presença, 1994. Murteira, Mário. "The Present Economic Situation: Its Origins and Prospects." In L. S. Graham and H. M. Makler, eds., Contemporary Portugal, 331-42. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. OCED. Economic Survey: Portugal: 1988. Paris: OCED, 1988 [see also this series since 1978].■ Pasquier, Albert. L'Economie du Portugal: Données et Problémes de Son Expansion. Paris: Librarie Generale de Droit, 1961. Pereira da Moura, Francisco. Para onde vai e economia portuguesa? Lisbon, 1973.■ Pintado, V. Xavier. Structure and Growth of the Portuguese Economy. Geneva: EFTA, 1964.■ Pitta e Cunha, Paulo. "Portugal and the European Economic Community." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 321-38. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■. "The Portuguese Economic System and Accession to the European Community." In E. Sousa Ferreira and W. C. Opello, Jr., eds., Conflict and Change in Portugal, 1974-1984, 281-300. Lisbon, 1985. Porto, Manuel. "Portugal: Twenty Years of Change." In Alan Williams, ed., Southern Europe Transformed, 84-112. London: Harper & Row, 1984. Quarterly Economic Review. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1974-present.■ Salgado de Matos, Luís. Investimentos Estrangeiros em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973 and later eds.■ Schmitt, Hans O. Economic Stabilisation and Growth in Portugal. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1981.■ Smith, Diana. Portugal and the Challenge of 1992. New York: Camões Center, RIIC, Columbia University, 1989.■ Tillotson, John. The Portuguese Bank Note Case [ 1920s]: Legal, Economic and Financial Approaches to the Measure of Damages in Contract. Manchester, U.K.: Faculty of Law, University of Manchester, 1992.■ Tovias, Alfred. Foreign Economic Relations of the Economic Community: The Impact of Spain and Portugal. Boulder, Colo.: Rienner, 1990.■ Valério, Nuno. A moeda em Portugal, 1913-1947. Lisbon: Sá da Costa, 1984.■. As Finanças Públicas Portuguesas Entre As Duas Guerras Mundiais. Lisbon: Cosmos, 1994.■ World Bank. Portugal: Current and Prospective Economic Trends. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978 and to the present.■ PHOTOGRAPHY ON PORTUGAL■ Alves, Afonso Manuel, Antônio Sacchetti, and Moura Machado. Lisboa. Lisbon, 1991.■ Antunes, José. Lisboa do nosso olhar; A look on Lisbon. Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 1991. Beaton, Cecil. Near East. London: Batsford, 1943.■. Lisboa 1942: Cecil Beaton, Lisbon 1942. Lisbon: British Historical Society of Portugal/Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1995.■ Bottineau, Yves. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1957.■ Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. 7 Olhares ( Seven Viewpoints). Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 1998.■ Capital, A. Lisboa: Imagens d'A Capital. Lisbon: Edit. Notícias, 1984.■ Dias, Marina Tavares. Photographias de Lisboa, 1900 ( Photographs of Lisbon, 1900). Lisbon: Quimera, 1991.■. Os melhores postais antigos de Lisboa ( The best old postcards of Lisbon). Lisbon: Químera, 1995.■ Finlayson, Graham, and Frank Tuohy. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1970.■ Glassner, Helga. Portugal. Berlin-Zurich: Atlantis-Verlag, 1942. Hopkinson, Amanda, ed. Reflections by Ten Portuguese photographers. Bark-way, U.K.: Frontline/Portugal 600, 1996.■ Lima, Luís Leiria, and Isabel Salema. Lisboa de Pedra e Bronze. Lisbon, 1990.■ Martins, Miguel Gomes. Lisboa ribeirinha ( Riverside Lisbon). Lisbon: Arquivo Municipal, Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Livros Horizonte, 1994. Vieira, Alice. Esta Lisboa ( This Lisbon). Lisbon: Caminho, 1994. Wohl, Hellmut, and Alice Wohl. Portugal. London: Frederick Muller, 1983.■ EQUESTRIANISM■ Andrade, Manoel Carlos de, Luz da Liberal e Nobre Arte da Cavallaria. Lisbon, 1790.■ Graciosa, Filipe. Escola Portuguesa de Arte Equestre. Lisbon, 2004.■ Horsetalk Magazine. Published in New Zealand.■ Oliveira, Nuno. Reflections on the Equestrian Art. London, 2000.■ Russell, Eleanor, ed. The Truth in the Teaching of Nuno Oliveira. Stanhope,■ Queensland, Australia, 2003. Vilaca, Luis V., and Pedro Yglesias d'Oliveira, eds. LUSITANO. Coudelarias De Portugal. O Cavalo ancestral do Sudoeste da Europa. Lisbon: ICONOM, 2005.■ Websites of interest: www.equestrian.pt portugalweb.comHistorical dictionary of Portugal > CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
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15 Chronology
15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence ofBrazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister. -
16 Empire, Portuguese overseas
(1415-1975)Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:• Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).• Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.• West Africa• Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.• Middle EastSocotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.• India• Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.• Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.• East Indies• Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas
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